The endangered Indonesian Mangroves
Mangrove is a distinctive trees that rise from a tangle of roots wriggling out of the mud. A mangrove is defined as a tree, palm, or shrub, generally exceeding one half meter in height. It usually grows above mean sea level in the intertidal zone of marine coastal environments. Mangroves are remarkably tough. Most of mangroves live on muddy soil, but some of them also grow on sand, peat, and coral rock. Mangroves live in water up to 100 times saltier than most other plants can tolerate. Due to its tough location, it bears the brunt of ocean-borne storms and hurricanes. Still it thrives in an environment where land and water meet and where the flooding alone would drown most other trees.
History of the Mangrove Ecosystem.
The mangroves ecosystem is one of the most important ecosystems in the world. Indonesia, with a coastline of approximately 81,000 km in length, nowadays possesses the largest area of mangroves in the world. It has nearly one quarter of the entire mangrove forests in the world. “In Indonesia, there is a long history of public and use of coastal ecosystems for and by various sectors, and also often for subsistence purposes.” (“Indonesia”, Mangrove For the Future) In Indonesia, the mangroves serve as a type of very important natural resources for human’s livelihood.
Map of the Indonesian Mangroves (www.mangrovesforthefuture.org)
Benefits of the Mangrove Ecosystem.
“Mangroves are an incredibly important habitat, providing essential services for both people and nature. They are fish factories, carbon stores, water purifiers, and produce timber and fuelwood,”(Spalding) said Mark Spalding, senior marine scientist at The nature Conservancy. It protects the water from land contaminants by intercepting land derived nutrients, pollutants, and suspended matters before these contaminants reach the water. The mangrove forest also helps to protect the coastline from tidal flood and erosion. Also, the mangroves can help to mitigate the climate change. “In recent decades, research has shown that mangrove ecosystems store large quantities of carbon in their biomass and soil; several times more than their terrestrial counterparts.”(Primavera, 5) This could be a very effective way to mitigate climate changes, as the mangroves can keep the carbon reservoir, and prevent the carbon emission to the atmosphere.
The productive mangrove ecosystem in Indonesia (http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/oct/04/biodiversity-100-actions-asia)
The Mangroves in West Bali National Park (http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Portal:Indonesia/Featured_picture/2010#mediaviewer/File:Bali_Barat_mangroves.jpg)
Human Impacts on the Mangrove Ecosystem.
Globally, half of all mangrove forests have been lost since the mid-twentieth century, with one-fifth since 1980 (Spalding et al. 2010). Tragically the mangroves habitat is continuing to decline significantly each year. Up to 60% of the historic mangrove resource in the world has been lost due to the population pressure, the agriculture, and urban development. Conversion into shrimp farms causes 25% of the total destruction, according to UNEP (Botkin and Keller, 2003), happening mostly in Southeast Asia and Latin America. In indonesia, the mangrove is declining at an alarming rate of 6% a year. People are cutting the trees for agriculture and creating living spaces. 35% of the mangroves have been lost in the past 2 decades. The loss of mangroves in Indonesiaare being destroyed at a rate 3 - 5 times greater than the average rates of forest loss, costing billions loss and destructing millions of people’s ecosystem services that these people need to survive, according to a new report launched today by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Mangroves losses due to human impacts:
Proportion of remaining mangroves protected in different regions. The percentage of mangroves
within protected areas is shown above each bar. Source: USGS Global Distribution of Mangroves (2011). Protected area data: World Database of Protected Areas (WDPA), not including MAB sites. Accessed January 2014
Major drivers of mangrove loss in selected South and South-East Asian countries (1975-2005). Source: Giri et al.
Mangrove losses in the Philippines between 1990 and 2010. Source Long et al.47
Mangrove losses due to aquaculture conversion (highlighted in red) in the Mahakam Delta in east Kalimantan. Source: JAXA METI
Future of the Mangrove Ecosystem
By 2050, South-East Asia will potentially have lost 35 per cent of the mangrove cover it had in 2000, with associated negative ecological and socio-economic impacts. Ecosystem service losses in South-East Asia from the destruction of mangroves has been estimated at more than US$2 billion a year over the period 2000 - 2050, with Indonesia predicted to suffer the highest losses at US$ 1.7 billion per year. A large number of commercially important fish species such as snapper, mullet, wrasse, parrotfish, sharks and rays utilize mangroves during all or part of their lives, with the mangrove providing critical food, shelter and refuge functions. It has been estimated that 30 per cent of the fish caught in South-East Asia are supported in some way by mangrove forests; a figure approaching 100 per cent for highly mangrove-dependent species including some species of prawn. It was estimated that the annual average landing of mangrove-associated fish and blue crab in the Gulf is 10,500 tonnes, with an estimated total value of US$19 million to local fisheries.
Mangroves form the foundation of a highly productive and biologically rich ecosystem that is home to a spectacular range of species of birds, mammals, invertebrates and fish which help to support people through fisheries, tourism and cultural heritage. The combination of clearance and degradation has meant that globally about 16 per cent of mangrove tree species and some 40 per cent of the animal species dependent on these ecosystems are now considered vulnerable and/or at risk of extinction. The mangroves are home to over 200 species of birds, and at least 600 different fish species are known to occur in mangroves across the Indo-Pacific region.
To Improve Human Impacts on Mangrove
There are many ways to improve and maintain the positive human impacts on the mangrove ecosystem. First way is to raise the awareness of the importance of mangrove in the region. By convincing the people, the mass may take an action for the conservation of mangrove or at least will not be ignorant of loss of mangroves. Moreover, if we assess a number of advantages for having mangroves such as mangrove-based coastal defense strategies, which saves million dollars for protection from tsunami and storms, we may have society fund or support the conservation of mangroves. In addition to providing protection from natural disasters, erosion can be halted by establishing mangrove belts in grids of small permeable bunds made of branches and bamboo. When implemented jointly, these measures allow for maximum capture of sediment, while minimising the eroding forces.
Another way to maintain mangrove ecosystem is to change human activities that are harmful to nature to non-harmful or eco-friendly. One of main human activity that eradicates mangrove ecosystem is shrimp and fish farming. According to Kairo et al’s statistics, the main driver of the loss of mangrove forests in Indonesia is their conversion for aquaculture projects, especially shrimp farms. It was estimated that by the year 2000, over 1.2 million ha of mangroves had been converted into aquaculture ponds in Southeast Asia alone (Kairo et al. 2001). Instead of getting rid of mangrove for shrimp production, we can adapt sustainable shrimp production which is through silver fisheries approach. The concept is to replant the mangroves near and inside shrimp and fishponds. In this way, people will maintain their production and the ecosystem without eradicating them. Moreover, these approaches not only reduce the vulnerability of coastal areas to strong winds, tidal floods, abrasion and salt water intrusion, but also enhance the biodiversity of the region.
Last possible method is further cooperation with government. In addition to providing policies and protection laws for the mangrove ecosystem, government can improve the current situation of the ecosystem by hiring people to work for the conservation of the mangrove ecosystem. Many people in Indonesia are in poverty and are looking for jobs. If the government offers jobs for replanting activities, people can fight poverty and improve their family income.
Proportion of remaining mangroves in the ten largest mangrove nations. The percentage of mangroves within protected areas is shown above each bar. Source: USGS Global Distribution of Mangroves (2011). Protected area data: World Database of Protected Areas (WDPA), not including MAB sites. Accessed January 2014
Summary
Ecological ties between mangroves and surrounding environments can be key for more sustainable management of the mangroves. These mangroves are heavily exploited for wood chips, artisanal and commercial fishing. When cost-benefit analysis of forest management are taken into account, the options including linkages between mangroves and surrounding environments can be key for more sustainable management of the mangroves. Clearfelling of mangroves is only viable when the linkages are not taken into account. Linkages such as fishery production, erosion control, biodiversity, and mangrove clearance show that if these systems are interconnected, a reduction on cutting would be most beneficial.
More and more people need to take stock in what is happening with the mangrove ecosystem. This is often overlooked as an important ecosystem and it has to be taken into account. This begins with the government, as there is not much data on the extent of their mangroves or even about their benefits on health and ecosystems services. If they were included, they could be included in the Payment for Ecosystem Service schemes, which provides financial incentives and benefits for governments and communities to better manage the mangroves. Moreover, accurate data is imperative to know if preservation projects are working or not, and what the next step in conservation should be.
Just as importantly, people need to be educated on all the benefits that mangroves provide for them and even the consequences that they would encounter if the mangroves were to die. Mangroves serve as as a source of commercial fishing but if the mangroves disappeared, the people of Indonesia would lose a huge source of income and even more people would go poor. This same ecosystem also serves an important role for the environment as a carbon sink, that helps to counteract the effects of global warming. As stated before, mangroves also play a great role in protecting the country from extreme weather such as tsunamis. Were the mangroves to not be there, these countries would be devastated by natural disaster, more so than they would had with the mangroves.
Work Cited
Alongi, Daniel M. "Present state and future of the world's mangrove forests."Environmental conservation 29.03 (2002): 331-349.
Spalding, Mark, “Mangroves for Coastal Defence: New study offers practical guidance for coastal decision makers“,
“Indonesia”, Mangrove For the Future, (http://www.mangrovesforthefuture.org/countries/members/indonesia)
"Restoring Abandoned Shrimp Ponds in Indonesia." Our Field, Advocacy and Research Actions Accross the Globe. Wetlands International, n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. (http://www.wetlands.org/Whatwedo/Ouractions/tabid/2661/mod/601/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/2447/Restoring-abandoned-shrimp-ponds-in-Indonesia.aspx)
"Mangrove Forests." For Coastal Protection. Wetlands International, n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. (http://www.wetlands.org/Whatarewetlands/Mangroveforests/tabid/2730/Default.aspx)
"Destruction of Carbon-Rich Mangroves Costs up to US$42 Billion in Economic Damages Annually - UNEP Report - UNEP." Destruction of Carbon-Rich Mangroves Costs up to US$42 Billion in Economic Damages Annually - UNEP Report - UNEP. United Nations Environment Programme, n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. (http://www.unep.org/newscentre/default.aspx?DocumentID=2796&ArticleID=11005)
Primavera, “A call to Action”, The Importance of Mangroves to People: A Call to Action, United Nations Enviroment Programme, n.d.
Blog by Daniel Niu, Andrew An, and Chris Flores.
